1. Introduction

Forensic identification may take place prior to death and is referred to as Antemortem (AM) identification. Identification may as well be transported after death and is called Postmortem (PM) identification. While behavioral characteristics (eg speech) are not suitable for PM identification, most of the physiological characteristics are not appropriate for PM identification as well, especially under severe circumstances encountered in mass disasters (eg aircraft crashes) or when identification is being attempted more than a few weeks after death.

Therefore, a postmortem biometric identifier has to survive such severe conditions and resist early decay that affects body tissues.Dental features are considered the best candidates for PM identification. This is due to their survivability and diversity. Forensic odontology is the branch of forensics concerned with identifying human individuals based on their dental features. Traditionally, forensic odontologists relied on the morphology of dental restorations (fillings, crowns, etc.) to identify victims. However, modern materials used in restorations and fills have poor radiographic characteristics. Here, it is becoming important to make identification decisions based on inherent dental features like root and crown morphologies, teeth size, rotations, spacing between teeth and sinus patterns.

2.Existing Architecture

ADIS will provide automated search and matching capabilities for digitized x-ray and photographic images. This paper deals about an overview of ADIS (Automated Dental Identification System) and also presents a new fully automated algorithm for identifying people from dental X-ray images. ADIS (Automated Dental Identification System) is a fully automated system, which is built for PM identification. Dental biometrics automatically analyzes dental radiographs to achieve the aim of forensic dentistry. It is to identify the disabled individuals for what other means of identification (eg, fingerprint, face, etc.) are not available. Dental radiographs provide valid, accurate and reliable information about the identity of an individual.

On the basis of the time of acquisition, there are two classes of dental radiographs. The radiographs acquired after the death are called the Post-mortem (PM) radiographs, and the radiographs acquired while the person is alive are called the Ante-mortem (AM) radiographs. The AM radiographs, grouped in the dentists 'office, are labeled with patients' names. The method used in dental biometrics is matching the unlabeled PM radiographs against the database of labeled AM radiographs. If the set of teeth in a PM radiograph adequately matches the teeth in an AM radiograph, the identity of the PM radiograph is obtained In order to achieve the ADIS, the automated archiving of AM (antemortem) dental images in a database, are for searched the database for the best matches to a given PM image. To achieve this goal, we need to automate the process of segmenting the dental radiographs. There are two stages for dental biometrics:

1. Radiograph Segmentation and Teeth Separation

2. Shape matching

3. Limitations of Existing Architecture:

There are many challenges that affect the performance of ADIS and should be taken into account while building the system. These challenges include dealing with i) The main challenge is that dental features may change over time, especially if the PM images were captured long time after the AM were captured, that will lead to difficulty in matching.

ii) Poor quality radiographs, which adversely affect the segmentation results, and consequentially affects the accuracy of ADIS.

iii) A third challenge is handling view variance in both AM and PM image.

4.Proposed Architecture

If the PM images were captured long time after the AM were captured, that would lead to difficulty in matching. Morphology of root can be used for identification in this case. A reversible technique is presented which uses the root morphology.

Teeth are comprised of a crown and one or more roots. The crown may have a 'chisel-like' edge or one or more points called 'cusps'. Enamel formation is called amelogenesis and occurs in the crown stage of tooth development. Dentin formation, known as dentinogenesis, is the first identifiable feature in the crown stage of tooth development. The formation of dentin must always occur before the formation of enamel.

As root and cementum formation begin, bone is created in the adjacent area. Frequently, nerves and blood vessels run parallel to each other in the body, and the formation of both usually takes place simultaneously and in a similar fashion. However, this is not the case for nerves and blood vessels around the tooth, because of different rates of development
Cementum formation is called cementogenesis and occurs late in the development of teeth. Cementoblasts are the cells responsible for cementogenesis.

In this technique, missing teeth in skeletonized human remains can be reconstructed for the purpose of radiographic comparison and postmortem identification. In this technique, which is based upon pilot studies with skeletonized mandibles of archival remains, the alveolar socket walls are sealed with a coat of cyanoacrylate cement and injected with a mixture of vinyl polysiloxane and barium sulfate. Radiographs are produced with the radiopaque mixture in place, which highlights the antemortem morphology of the roots. Subsequently, the impression material is removed, resulting in no gross alteration of the evidence. The radiographs made with this technique, as well as the impressions, can be stored for later use at a trial or pending the discovery of ante mortem dental evidence.

5.References

1. "Challenges of Developing an Automated Dental
Identification System ", Mohamed Abdel-Mottaleb *, Omaima Nomir *, Diaa Eldin Nassar **, Gamal Fahmy **, and Hany H. Ammar **

2. American Society of Forensic Odontology, "Forensic Odontology News", Vol. 16, No. 2, Summer 1997.

3.United States Army Institute of Dental Research Walter Reed Army Medical Center, "Computer Assisted Post Mortem Identification via Dental and other Characteristics", USAIDR Information Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 1, 1990

4. M. Piotrowski, and PS Szczepaniak, "Active Contour Based Segmentation of Low-Contrast Medical Images", International Conference on Advances in Medical Signal and Information Processing, 2000. pp 104-109

5. K. Jain, H. Chen and S. Minut, "Dental Biometrics Human Identification Using Dental Radiographs", AVBPA, UK, 2003, pp. 429-437.
6.5 R. Brunelli, and T. Poggio, "Face recognition: Features versus Templates", IEEE Trans. on PAMI, (1), 1993, pp. 1042-1052.

7. S. Hu, EA Hoffman, and M. Reinhardt, "Automatic Lung Segmentation for Accurate Quantization of Volumetric X-Ray CT Images", IEEE Trans. Med. Imag., Vol. 20, No.6, Jun. 2001, p. 490-498.

8.R. Gonzalez, and R. Wood, "Digital Image Processing", Addison Wesley, 1993.

9. "Reconstruction of root morphology in skeletonized remains with postmortem dental loss", Smith BC. Journal of Forensic Science. 1992 Jan; 37 (1): 176-84.

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It's important to protect children's teeth, even their baby teeth, because oral health encompasses so much more. The gums and skeletal structure also need to be protected against infection. By sealing teeth, the risk of cavities-and consequential infections and decay-decreases, leading to a healthy mouth and a happier child.

What Are Dental Sealants?

They are thin, plastic coatings painted directly onto the chewing surfaces of teeth, especially the molars and premolars. The goal is to seal off the area, creating an invisible barrier that keeps food from lodging into tiny crevices. It also keeps bacteria from interacting with tooth enamel.

This preventive service works well to ward off tooth decay. With the clear coating present, there's less chance that a cavity will develop. Dental sealants form a shield so that even if a child misses certain areas when brushing and flossing, a level of protection is still in place.

Mols in particular are shorter to cavities. Application of this coating is an effective way to keep molars intact and cavity-free through the childhood years. Some studies show they can reduce the risk of decay in molars by almost 80 percent. A child with fewer cavities and mouth infections will typically have fewer oral problems as an adult.

How Do They Protect Teeth?

It's simple. The plastic coating adheres to the tooth so that food can not come into direct contact with the enamel. This means that acids found in foods and created by bacteria can not wear away the enamel. The tooth's surface remains intact and healthy.

While dental sealants are available for children and adults, pediatric dentists in particular recommend them. The application is straightforward and far easier and quicker than filling a cavity. It's a painless procedure that involves cleaning and drying each tooth before applying a prep gel. The gel is rinsed off after a few seconds, and the teeth are treated again. Then the plastic coating is applied, and a special blue light is used to harden the material.

Are There Any Side Effects?

It's a very safe procedure with no known major side effects. The noticeable exception is a possible pre-existing allergy to the plastic material, but this is very rare.

How Often Should They Be Re-Applied?

Another great thing about this therapy is that dental sealants can last years, which means your child does not have to spend a lot of time going back to the dentist. The material is strong and durable, typically lasting several years before a reapplication is required.

Occidentally one or two teeth will need reapplication before the rest do. In these cases, the dentist can quickly treat just the affected areas.

Brushing & Cleanings Are Still Important

While sealants are effective, they do not replace regular brushing and flossing. Nor do they replace regular checks and cleanings. All of these measures work together to keep kids cavity-free for as long as possible. Learning good oral care at a young age is healthy habit that will yield benefits for a whole lifetime.

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Cosmetic dentistry is the type of dentistry that aims to help patients improve their teeth and smile. This is what separates it from what is known as traditional dentistry. Another way to look at the two is to see the services and treatments offered by traditional dentistry as a necessity, while those offered in cosmetic dentistry are electrical, which means, the patient can decide whether or not to push through with the treatment.

Some treatments offered by a clinic for cosmetic dentistry can also help patients improve their overall oral health. For example, dental fillings which have been traditionally given by general practitioners are now classified under cosmetic dentistry as these offer both aesthetic and functional benefits. Check out the most common services offered from a clinic for cosmetic dentistry below.

– Teeth whitening. Teeth whitening or bleaching is one of the more popular cosmetic dentistry treatments as many people want to lighten the shade of their teeth. Through the use of chemicals, dentists can help remedy discoloration caused by some food and drinks, smoking, and some types of medicines.

– Bonding. In bonding, a cosmetic dentist uses a tooth-colored material in order to change the color of the teeth or fill in gaps. Bonding has become popular because it requires just one visit to the dentist's office and, through proper care, can least several years. Bonding is sometimes used as a substitute for fillings and to close gaps between teeth.

– Crowns. Crowns are used to restore the appearance and shape of teeth. It is sometimes recommended as a treatment of last resort due to the amount of time required to install these. The upside is that these can be used for cases wherein other treatments may not be possible or effective. Additionally, crowns can last for a long time.

– Veneers. Veneers are used to treat the same problems that bonding solvents, including chipped, misshapen, uneven, crooked and discolored teeth. Cosmetic dentists may use either plastic or porcelain which is placed over the surface of the tooth to change its color and shape. And unlike bonding, veneers are a little cheaper.

– Reshaping and contouring. If you have teeth that are crooked, irregularly shaped or have been chipped, tooth reshaping and contouring can help you give your teeth a much needed makeover.

These are only some of the most common ones offered by a typical cosmetic dentistry clinic . The best way to determine which cosmetic dental treatment you should choose is to schedule a consultation with your dentist.

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Cosmetic dentistry refers to when you do anything beyond the normal health of your teeth, including fixing crooked teeth and gaps, as well as changing teeth discoloration or chipped teeth. If you are thinking of having your smile worked on, here is an overview of what cosmetic dentistry and cosmetic teeth whitening can do for you.

One thing cosmetic dentistry can do for you is to whiten your teeth. This can be either done in a Chicago cosmetic dentist office, a cosmetic dentist Madison Avenue office or a Beverly Hills cosmetic dental office – virtually everywhere in the country today.

Or you can get over the counter, do it yourself teeth whitening kits that are used in your home – which type you should chose really depends upon how discolored your teeth are and how confident you can do these home treatments yourself.

Porcelain veneers is another type of cosmetic dentistry procedure. This is when a veneer is placed over the front of the teeth, to hide any cracks or chips. Dental veneers can also be used to create a whiter smile and overlay gaps.

If you have missing teeth, then dental implants may be a good option for you. Artificial roots are anchored into the jaw and then fitted with a prosthetic tooth.

For gapping teeth, dental whitening bonding can be used to apply a tooth colored composite to the teeth. Then the material can be polished and shaped to look like the rest of your teeth.

When you have a cavity to be filled, ask for the tooth colored fillings. This may be more appealing than the traditional silver fillings that are very noticeable.

An attractive and durable option to getting fillings or crowns on your teeth are porcelain inlays and overlays to repair any damaged teeth.

If your tooth is badly decayed and a filling won’t take care of the problem, then a dental crown is usually a form of cosmetic dentistry. After the decay has been removed and the tooth has been properly prepared, the crown will be fitted creating a kind of cosmetic dentures.

Dental bridges are a piece of dental equipment that are made of two crowns and a prosthetic tooth. They are used to cover the gap when teeth are missing.

To find, for instance, the right Ft Myers cosmetic dentist or a Palm Beach cosmetic dentist, make sure you do your homework in advance. They should be certified by the American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry (AACD). Ask to see before and after pictures of several patients they have worked on.

If you live in Colorado, then check each Colorado cosmetic dentist references and try to find someone who has done the actual procedures you are looking at having done on your teeth.

Finding an affordable cosmetic dentists’ doesn’t have to be a daunting task either. Just do your home work in advance. If you live in San Diego, then ask for referrals from your family dentist as well as friends and family members who may know of a good San Diego cosmetic dentist. Don’t go to the lowest priced dentist just because they apparently offer a better deal. Remember, you usually get what you pay for and this really applies when getting affordable cosmetic dentistry.

A good cosmetic dentist’ will be able to help you make the best and most informed decisions when it comes to your smile and your teeth. Your smile and confidence are big things to trust somebody with. So be sure your trust goes to the best cosmetic dentists you can find.

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Although the nutrient-dense, acid reflux diet is a major step to healing and building optimal health, removing amalgam fillings (silver fillings) is extremely important as they are a major source of heavy metal toxicity.

What most people do not realize is that the largest portion of metal used for fillings is mercury – at least 54% mercury! The mercury is mixed with other metals (copper, silver, tin and zinc) that actually increase its toxicity through galvanization – an electrical current produced from two or more dissimilar metals, thereby increasing the rate of mercury corrosion from 10-20 times! So while the teeth are protected from further decay, the resultant heavy metal toxicity may be devastating to health and be a serious block to overcoming acid reflux.

Mercury is extremely toxic in very minute amounts, and has been linked to many neurological diseases such as Alzheimer's and Multiple Sclerosis. Heavy metals migrate to fatty tissues like the tissues of the brain and the myelin sheath that protects nerve cells. Mercury in small amounts can cause brain lesions as it can alter the cell membrane structure of developing brain neurons resulting in their rapid degeneration.

It is interesting to note that while dental office staff is carefully instructed about the vigilant handling of amalgam material as it is classified by OSHA as "hazardous," that once it is put in your mouth – it becomes safe? In 1992, the World Health Organization declared that mercury is so poisonous that no amount of mercury absorption is safe! In fact, there is a constant mercury vapor that is released from amalgam fillings even after 50 years!

Mercury is a "cytotoxin." It is poisonous to all living cells and can bind with any molecule called a "sulfhydrl" – which is found in most proteins – the building blocks for all tissues. As a result – mercury can interfere with virtually any process or organ in the body.

Hal Huggins, DDS, MS, a leading biological dentist who has been a pioneer in informing the public about mercury toxicity, writes in his book called, It's All in Your Head, The Link Between Mercury Amalgams and Illness that "Mercury kills cells by interfering with their ability to exchange oxygen, nutrients and waste products through the cell membrane. Inside the cell, mercury destroys our genetic code, DNA, leaving us without the ability to reproduce that cell ever again. Immunologically, mercury embeds itself in a cell membrane, giving the cell the appearance of being "non-self," which is the trigger for the immune system to destroy that specific cell. With mercury in your cell membranes, the immune system will start destroying your own tissues, then the term autoimmune disease. Examples of these are diabetes, multiple sclerosis, scleroderma and lupus. "

Dr. Michael Ziff, DDS, who with his father, Sam Ziff, took a series of critical studies and reports examining the adverse effects of mercury and combined them in a single symptom list that analyzed 1569 patients who had eliminated their mercury-containing dental amalgams (see the book, The Mercury in Your Mouth – The Truth about "Silver" Dental Fillings, Quicksilver Press, p. 8-9), stated that, "You would not take a leaky thermometer, put it in your mouth, and leave it there 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Yet that's exactly what happens when an amalgam filling is installed in your mouth. "

A summary of how mercury interferees with basic metabolic processes is eloquently described by Alfred Zamm, MD, FACP in this statement from his research: Mercury poisoning is impaired oxidation. It's like having an invisible cord around your neck that's strangling you, but you can not feel the cord is there. [The strangulation] is biochemical, but the principal is the same: mercury reduced the amount of oxygen you get. The body keeps adjusting, but with every adjustment it gets sicker and sicker. And absolutely you will die from this.

Most people are unaware that as mercury toxicity deprives the body of oxygen, the body in turn initiates a support of Candida overgrowth as a protective mechanism. Therefore, even with a superb nutrient-hazardous, anti-Candida dietary protocol, if a person has a mouth full of silver fillings or mercury amalgams they may not recover from acid reflux!

Dr. Louisa Williams' important book called Radical Medicine points to research done by Dr. Dietrich Klinghardt in the 1990's that shows how mercury amalgams initiate Candida overgrowth.

He states that: "Mercury suffocates the intracellular respiratory mechanism and can cause cell death." So, the immune system makes a deal: it cultivates fungi and bacteria that can bind large amounts of toxic metals. : the system has to provide nutrition for the microorganisms and has to deal with their metabolic products. "

In the book, The Mercury in Your Mouth – The Truth about "Silver" Dental Fillings, it discusses the fact that indigestion and weak stomach acid are associated with mercury toxicity. The gastrointestinal tract will absorb the highest levels of mercury because the fillings are constantly in contact with saliva. When the immune system is compromised by mercury, fungus multiplies rapidly.

Although the safe removal of dental amalgams is a very complicated process requiring an extremely specific protocol and a biological dentist must thoroughly assess the health of the patient before removal can be recommended, this is a prudent step in long-term health.

Removing mercury amalgams along with a nutrient-dense, acid reflux diet may help to alleviate the pervasive health problems associated with Candida overgrowth and dysbiosis significantly.

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